Transformations in Buddhism in Tibet

·期刊原文
Transformations in Buddhism in Tibet,
By Kenneth Ch'en
Philosophy East & West
V. 7 No. 3-4 (January 1958)
pp. 117-125
Copyright 1958 by University of Hawaii Press

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p.117

IN THE REALM Of Buddhist thought, the Tibetans have preserved faithfully the Maadhyamika system of Naagaarjuna and his followers, For instance, the methods and subjects of debate among the Tibetan monks in their disputations are based largely on the literature and practices of this school. We may say that no basic transformation has been wrought in this important aspect of Tibetan Buddhism. However, our subject calls for a discussion of the transformations that have taken place, and to illustrate such transformations let us consider two figures, one in flesh in the person of the Dalai Lama, and the other in iconographic form, the yab-yum or father mother image.

Early Theravaada Buddhism made a careful distinction between spiritual and temporal authority. When an individual entered the monastic order, he automatically became subject to the rules of the religious society and was no longer amenable to the laws of the state. Moreover, the Buddha considered himself, by virtue of his having left the household life, to be on a different plane than that occupied by civil rulers, and felt no need to reverence them.[1] Yet, in Tibet, the Dalai Lama combines in his person not only spiritual but also temporal authority. How did this change take place? In the Paali scriptures, the Buddha discouraged relationships with women. He permitted women to join the order only after repeated entreaties by his favorite disciple, Aananda. In the Mahaaparinibbaanasutta there is the memorable passage dealing with the Buddha's attitude toward women:

Aananda asked the Buddha, "How are we to conduct ourselves, O Lord, with regard to women?"
"As not seeing them, Aananda."
"But if we do see them, what are we to d.o?"
"Do not speak to them."
"But if they do speak to us, then what are we to do?"
"Keep wide awake, Aananda."[2]

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Because of this attitude, improper conduct with women would be punishable by expulsion from the Order.[3] Yet, in Tibet, one of the most common images is that of the yab-yum in ecstatic embrace. This change, too, must be explained.

I shall discuss these changes briefly. A knowledge of the factors bringing about these transformations is essential if we are to understand the present state of Tibetan politics and religion, for in the figure of the Dalai Lama we may see the changes which have taken place in Buddhism in the political realm, while in the yab-yum symbolism may be seen the changes in the religious and philosophical realm.

The Tibetan chroniclers tell us that during the reign of King Srong-btsan-sgam-po (620-650) Buddhism was introduced into Tibet, and that it soon became the state religion under this ruler.[4] However, a more objective examination of Tibetan history will reveal that during the first century after its introduction, Buddhism made very little progress against the hostile Bon faith, which enjoyed wide support among the Tibetan nobility. It was only after the arrival of Padmasambhava in 747 that the foreign religion succeeded in establishing a foothold on Tibetan soil and overcoming the opposition of the Bon priests and exorcists. Even then, progress was not rapid. The Tibetans turned to Buddhism mainly to take advantage of the magic feats and sorcery which the Buddhist masters were able to perform, and not through any deep inner conviction or true appreciation of the superiority of the Buddhist doctrine. Tibetan chronicles speak of a violent struggle between the two camps about the middle of the ninth century, with the anti-Buddhists grouped around the king, Lang-dar-ma, who proscribed the Indian religion and drove the Buddhists under cover. Only with the appearance of the Indian missionary Atisha in 1038, and the Tibetan masters Marpa and Rin-chen-bzang-po, did the religion enter a period of genuine development, characterized by the rise of numerous schools of Tibetan Buddhism.

Up to the eleventh century, Tibetan history was largely taken up with fighting among the great aristocratic families, mainly, however, in the form of raids brought about by disputes over pasture land or by mutual jealousy.Such raids erupted suddenly and passed just as abruptly, following no set plan or aim.

In the twelfth century, however, the new Indian religion had begun to

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capture the imagination of the Tibetan aristocracy. The different schools which came into being during the eleventh century, such as the Nying-ma-pa (School of the Ancients), Ka-dam-pa (School of Instructions), Ka-guy-pa (School of Oral Traditions), and Kar-ma-pa (Karma, or School of Deeds), began constructing large monasteries which were in reality impregnable for- tresses inhabited by a multitude of monks without any special religious activities and ready to take up arms and fight if necessary. The aristocracy now sought after the prestige that was connected with the monastic robe. They vied with one another for the abbotship of these monasteries, which gave them not only political powers over a certain area but spiritual powers as well. The abbotship now passed from father to son or to a nephew, thereby creating within the temples something resembling monastic dynasties. Safely protected by the massive walls of the monasteries, these dynasties waged war against each other, and by the time the Mongols appeared on the scene in the beginning of the thirteenth century, the struggle had resulted in the survival of a few predominant families which were identified with the foremost monasteries of the land. In this new situation, the nature of the strife underwent a change. No longer was it a question of merely sporadic raids for some petty objectives; the struggle between the families now took on political meaning with a well-defined purpose. The objective now became nothing less than hegemony and political paramountcy.

By the time of the Mongols, three monasteries were predominant, but our attention shall be focussed on only one of these, the Sa-skya monastery, whose abbots were not celibates, and whose line of transmission was hereditary. In 1239, the Mongol general Godan, second son of the khan Ogotai, sent troops to attack Tibet, and they penetrated as far as the vicinity of the capital, Lhasa. The Tibetan leaders met and chose Sa-pan, abbot of the Sa-skya monastery, to deal with Godan. Sa-pan arrived at the Mongol camp in 1247, where he is said to have gained Godan's favor by curing his ailments. Actually, however, it seems that Godan's favorable attitude toward Buddhism arose out of his fear of the mysterious magical powers emanating from the rites and formulas which the Tibetans had exhibited for him. This mission of Sa-pan concluded with the submission of Tibet to the Mongols. In return, the Mongols made Sa-pan a Mongol official so that he could rule as the vice-regent in Tibet. The Mongol general undoubtedly realized that, although he could subdue the Tibetans by force, he could not hope to occupy the country by force for any length of time, for he knew that he could not cope with the magic and sorcery of the Tibetan priests--it would be much safer to exercise his rule through a Tibetan.

Here we see for the first time the marriage of spiritual and temporal

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powers in the hands of the Sa-skya abbot, arranged for by an external power, the Mongols. This pattern was to be repeated again and again in the future. However, the Sa-skya abbot did not succeed in forcing the other monasteries to accept his authority. Dissent arose among the monks of other monasteries who were jealous of the temporal powers' being centered in one sect, and no political strife is so violent as when it is coupled with religious sectarianism. For the next century or so, therefore, the history of Tibet was characterized by incessant sectarian strife, with the other monasteries refusing to abide by the authority of the Sa-skya monastery. All these great monasteries had one thing in common. With their minds focussed more and more on political paramountcy and the acquisition of temporal powers, they began to pay greater attention to worldly pursuits, their religion degenerated into exorcism and magic, their monks indulged in marriage and wine, and so indolence and complacency became the rule in matters of the religious life.

Amidst such widespread decay of the church, a reformer named Tsong-kha-pa arose in the fourteenth century who advocated a return to the traditional Buddhist way of life, a clearing away of witchcraft and magic, restoration of celibacy, prohibition of meat and alcohol, a severe monastic discipline, and a strict curriculum for all monks. The sect which he organized, the Ge-lug-pa, or the Yellow Sect as it was more commonly called, won immediate approval among the populace, who were fired by the fresh ideas and apostolic zeal displayed by the followers of Tsong-kha-pa.

The rapid growth of the Yellow Sect inevitably evoked opposition from the most powerful of the older schools, the Kar-ma-pa or the Red Sect. As part of its strategy to reinforce itself for the struggle against the Yellow Sect, the Red Sect began to strengthen its ties with the secular rulers of the province of Gtsang in central Tibet. The Yellow Sect also made its moves for political alliances. Instead of seeking support within Tibet, however, it turned to the Ordos Mongols for support. The Visit of the third lama of the Yellow Sect, Bsod-nams, to the Mongols was therefore not only to propagate the faith among the Mongols but was also based on more worldly considerations. The outcome of this visit determined the future fate of Tibet. The meeting between the lama and Altan Khan of the Mongols took place in 1578, with the khan bestowing liberal gifts on the lama. On this occasion the third lama proclaimed the Buddhist doctrine and called upon the Mongols to accept it as their religion in place of their shamanism. The lama then received from the khan the title "Dalai-lama," "dalai" being the Mongol term for "ocean." Thus the title of Dalai Lama, the Great Ocean Lama, originated with the third lama of the Yellow Sect. As a result of this mission, cordial relations were established between the Yellow Sect and the

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Mongols, resulting in the rapid spread of the sect among the latter. This close relationship was cemented even more by the discovery that the third lama was reincarnated in a Mongol baby, a situation which alarmed the Red Sect and the ruler of Gtsang even more.

The king took it upon himself to uphold Tibetan independence, to maintain the old order, and to oppose outside interference in the affairs of Tibet. He was able to rally to his support all the older sects of Tibetan Buddhism, as well as many members of the nobility who had been supporters of the Yellow Sect. These activities of the Gtsang ruler caused the Yellow Sect to turn more and more to its newly won converts, the Mongols, and in 1641 the latter, under Gu`sri Khan, were invited to intervene in Tibet by the fifth Dalai Lama, who wanted to eliminate the King of Gtsang as his political rival. In the ensuing campaign the Tibetan armies were disastrously defeated; the Gtsang king himself was captured and killed. By 1642 the Yellow Sect was triumphantly installed in Lhasa by Gu`sri Khan. The latter, having completed the conquest of Tibet, now did a remarkable thing--he donates the entire realm to the Dalai Lama. To the spiritual powers that the Dalai Lama already possessed were now added the temporal powers that went with being the ruler of the land. Such a situation, begun in 1642, was to endure down to our own times.

To summarize: Unlike the Buddhist monasteries in India, which kept aloof from temporal involvements, the Tibetan monasteries from the beginning identified themselves with the secular struggle for political paramountcy. To this end they allied themselves with the various temporal authorities in their competition for power. In this struggle, the Yellow Sect, assisted by the Mongols, emerged victorious, with the result that the leader of that sect, the Dalai Lama, assumed both religious and civil authority.

Turning now to the second figure, the yab-yum image, our first task is to paint a general picture of that phase of Buddhism known as Tantrism.. About the end of the seventh century, there arose on the borders of India,. mainly in Uddiyaana,[5] a body of literature called the Tantras, which dealt with such subjects as esoteric yoga exercises, rituals, charms, mystic formulas and diagrams, magic, and even medicine. This Tantric phase is usually looked upon as the last interpretation of Buddhism, with some scholars even going so far as to say that it was a decayed and corrupt form of Buddhism. Certainly its interpretation of doctrines and its esoteric practices had little-in common with the Hiinayaana or Mahaayaana traditions. In one Tantric text, for instance, the Ma~nju`sriimuulatantra, we find the Buddha descending to the level of a witch-doctor, revealing the formulas to carry out successfully any

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kind of crime.[6] The Tantric masters themselves claimed that their principles and practices were based on an esoteric revelation dating back not to the historic `Saakyamuni but to his predecessors and taking place not on this earth but in the highest of the Brahma heavens[7] (Brahmaloka). In the Tantras, the cosmos is conceived of as a great living being, with sexual symbolism, sacred rituals and spells, secret formulas, and mystic diagrams playing prominent roles.

Since both the Buddhist and Indian Tantras drew their inspiration from this common pool of ancient Indian folklore and mythology, the line of demarcation between Hinduism and Buddhism was rapidly breaking down, and the development and spread of Tantrism threatened to transform Buddhism or to push it into oblivion. At this juncture, the Buddhist Tantric masters developed a new interpretation that brought order out of chaos, and gave a new meaning to this misshapen mass of deities, charms, magic formulas, and esoteric practices. This new interpretation was none other than the application of the Maadhyamika doctrine of `suunyataa (void), according to which all appearances vanish and the gods and demons we see before us are mere images created by our own fanciful imagination and therefore have no real existence. Tantric experience was thus linked up with Buddhist Mahaayaana philosophy, and the Tantric masters found a theoretical justification for all their practices. This new interpretation is called Mantrayaana or Vajrayaana, and it was this aspect of Buddhism that was introduced into Tibet, where it was to find most fertile soil for luxuriant growth.

In Buddhism there are two planes, the sa^msaaric or phenomenal, where karma operates, and the nirvaa.nic, where karma ceases. Nirvaa.na is defined in ontological terms as the Absolute, which underlies all phenomenal existence. This Absolute is being in itself, the Buddha-nature or essence. This ontological conception of Nirvaa.na as the Absolute raises the question, how can man on the sa^msaaric plane flow toward Nirvaa.na and become the Buddha if there is no relation between the essence of man and the essence of the Buddha? The Tantric texts, in common with the Mahaayaana, uphold the doctrine that all sentient beings have the Buddha-essence in them. But man does not recognize the presence of this bodhi seed within him because of his ignorance. By getting rid of the erroneous view which considers phenomenal appearances as the absolute truth, man achieves a return to the Absolute that transcends all duality.

Now, the Tantras also teach that the process of the revelation of truth may be perceived, from the point of view of the Absolute, as the unfolding of the

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one into the many. So, in Tantric Buddhism, there is the conception of the five dhyaanii-buddhas, or Meditation Buddhas, representing the five skandhas or heaps, or the five directions. Once the conception of the five dhyaanii-buddhas had arisen, the search began for a principle transcending the pentad, some unchangeable ideal center, so to speak. This gave rise to the conception of the Aadibuddha, the primordial Buddha who preceded all the others. The emanation of these dhyaanii-buddhas from the Aadibuddha did not stop there; each dhyaanii-buddha must be accompanied by its female consort. There also arose a change in the bodhisattva conception. In Mahaayaana, the bodhisattvas were beings destined for enlightenment, but in Vajrayaana some bodhisattvas were considered to be emanations from these dhyaanii-buddhas. Thus we have another set of five dhyaanii-bodhisattvas, and, by a further emanation, their five female consorts.[8] At this stage, the process of creating gods and their female counterparts began to get out of control. All the gods were divided into their male and female forms. Each form was then divided into its mild and fierce aspect. In this manner was created the rich, elaborate, and fanciful pantheon of Lamaism, with every deity presented in its serene or angry aspect, depending upon the nature of the function it was called upon to perform.

How does the individual return to this Absolute, the undifferentiated, after his experience in the world? The Vajrayaana achieves this by adopting the homology of the macrocosm and the microcosm. That is to say, when the individual realizes within himself the process of cosmic expansion and reabsorption, he is able to attain salvation. To assist in this process a prop such at the ma.n.dala, or mystic diagram or cosmogram, is resorted to. Such a ma.n.dala reproduces by symbols the play of cosmic forces, and the Vajrayaana transfers this ma.n.dala to the body of the individual. The individual is considered to be the synthesis of the universe. The body is therefore the ma.n.dala, the cosmogram in whose psycho-physical functions the whole universe is reflected.

Mahaayaana always considered the return to the Absolute or enlightenment as the union of praj~naa and upaaya, wisdom and means. This wisdom is said to be `suunyataa, or the realization of the non-existence of all phenomenal appearances. `Suunyataa is often complemented by Karunaa or compassion, the dynamic force or moral inspiration that induces man to moral activities. Just as praj~naa is equated with `suunyataa, so is upaaya equated with Karunaa, and so we have the formula that the thought of enlightenment, or bodhicitta, is produced when praj~naa is wedded to upaaya or karunaa, and the nirvaanic state, that of perfect

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bliss, called mahaasukha, is thus obtained. In all the Tantras, the most important thing stressed is this union of praj~naa and upaaya.[9] However, these terms are not to be understood only in their philosophical sense as in the Mahaayaana, but in a hidden esoteric sense with which the Vajrayaana likes to clothe its terminology. The bodhicitta, or the thought of enlightenment, represents the unity of praj~naa and upaaya, and, when this unity is achieved, the universal process of reintegration is transferred to the body of the yogin. Sexual symbolism is now resorted to. Praj~naa or `suunyataa is conceived to be the female element, upaaya or karunaa the male element. The process of attaining this bodhicitta requires, therefore, the presence of a mudraa, or a woman who is the living symbol of praj~naa. The drama of the cosmic process is now transferred to the body of the disciple, and a bold attempt is made to transpose the whole process of cosmic creation to the sexual act.[10]

This, then, is the basis for the yab-yum image so frequent in Tibetan iconography. Such images ate not considered obscene or vulgar by the Tibetans, but are interpreted as symbols of the universal process of becoming and reabsorption, or as a representation of the perfect union of the two aspects of the Absolute, the static and the dynamic, manifested in the human world in the male and female forms. When the initiate looks at such yab-yum images, he is thereby invited to consider the necessity of reintegrating the essential oneness of the bodhicitta out of the apparent duality of phenomenal appearances. He is called upon to view such images as ritualistic portrayals of the emancipation achieved by the union of the bodhisattva and his mudraa. In conformity with the doctrine of `suunyataa, these images are mere artifices, temporary forms with no reality whatever, to be abandoned whenever one becomes aware of his Buddha-essence.

For the initiated, therefore, the Tantric practices and images need no defense. But, since such images ate open to the view of the public, the Tantric masters felt that some justification was necessary, lest wrong interpretations arise. Two main arguments are advanced in defense of their position. Tantrism, like the Mahaayaana Yogaacaara school, advocated an extreme form of idealism. The external world has no objective basis; all phenomena are merely illusory appearances created by the subject. Thus, when the yogin enters the ma.n.dala circle for initiation into the secret rites, his mind is already so trained and purified that he realizes the `suunyataa nature of all things. To such a person all the dharmas, or elements of existence, appear to be of the same non-dual nature. When he is in the state of union with the mudraa, he makes

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no distinction between his own self and the other; to him, a wife, a mother, and a public woman are of equal value.

In such a state of mind, he has no mental complex of morality or immorality, virtue or vice. Moreover, the Tantrists argue that any action by itself is neither moral nor immoral. The moral or immoral nature of an act is to be judged by the intention or motive behind the action. If the motive behind the action, and not the action itself, is the main criterion, then any action in the form of a religious practice leading to salvation is to be justified. From the standpoint of compassion, therefore, the bodhisattva is not to be judged by the ordinary moral standards of the world. The bodhisattva has pledged his life for the salvation of all sentient beings. For this reason, it is repeatedly stated in the texts that there is nothing that the bodhisattva should not do for the salvation of others, that the bodhisattva never sins.[11] Since the intentions and motives of the bodhisattva ate noble and virtuous, whatever deeds he performs are also noble and virtuous. This is but another way of stating the axiom, "What binds the fools, liberates the wise; what drags one to hell, helps the initiated to nirvaa.na."

Unlike early Buddhism, Mantrayaana or Tantric Buddhism assigns an important role to the female element. This situation stemmed from the Tantric concept of the cosmos as a living being in which there is the never-ending process of becoming and reabsorption. In Lamaism, the drama of this cosmic process is transferred to the disciple's body, and this is done by making the sexual act the symbol of universal creation. However, in accordance with the doctrine of `suunyata, the yab-yum images are merely temporary forms, and have value only in that they are sources of purification for those who gaze upon them. They are to be abandoned as soon as one realizes praj~naa, the awareness of the non-dual nature of the Absolute truth.

1. Mahaavagga I. 22. 3; II. 1. 3; translated in F. Max Mller, Sacred Books of the East, XIII, 4, 137,240.